Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that are held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds with the chemical formula A chemical formula or molecular formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound Ca Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, C Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of O Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, OK-si-jin, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly₃. It is a common substance found in rock In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms A seashell, also known as a sea shell, or simply as a shell, is the common name for a hard, protective outer layer, a shell, or in some cases a "test", that was created by a sea creature, a marine organism. The shell is part of the body of a marine animal. In most cases a shell is an exoskeleton, usually that of an animal without a, snails Snail is a common name for almost all members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have coiled shells in the adult stage. When the word is used in a general sense, it includes sea snails, land snails and freshwater snails. Otherwise snail-like creatures that lack a shell are called slugs, pearls A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is made up of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes of pearls (baroque pearls) occur. The finest, and eggshells The generalized eggshell structure, which varies widely among species, is a protein matrix lined with mineral crystals, usually of a calcium compound such as calcium carbonate. It is calcium build-up and is not made of cells. Harder eggs are more mineralized than softer eggs. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime Agricultural lime, also called garden lime or liming, is a soil additive made from pulverized limestone or chalk. The primary active component is calcium carbonate. Additional chemicals vary depending on the mineral source and may include calcium oxide, magnesium oxide and magnesium carbonate, and is usually the principal cause of hard water Hard water is water that has high mineral content . Hard water minerals primarily consist of calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other dissolved compounds such as bicarbonates and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate (. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, supplement or as an antacid An antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.

Chemical properties

Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably:

• it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide:

CaCO_3(s) + 2 HCl_(aq) → CaCl_2(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

• it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 °C in the case of CaCO₃), to form calcium oxide Calcium oxide , commonly known as quicklime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature, commonly called quicklime Calcium oxide , commonly known as quicklime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature, with reaction enthalpy In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, enthalpy is a thermodynamic property of a thermodynamic system. It is used to calculate the heat transfer during a quasistatic process taking place in a closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure (isobaric process). It is also a type of thermodynamic potential. Just as in mechanics, where 178 kJ / mole:

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble calcium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate (Ca2), also called calcium hydrogen carbonate, does not refer to a known solid compound; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the ions calcium (Ca2+), dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), bicarbonate (HCO3–), and carbonate (CO32–). The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH;.

CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → Ca(HCO₃)₂

This reaction is important in the erosion Erosion is the process of weathering and transport of solids in the natural environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere. It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by down-slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of bioerosion of carbonate rocks Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals. The two major types are limestone and dolomite, composed of calcite and the mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) respectively. Chalk and tufa are also minor sedimentary carbonates, forming caverns, and leads to hard water in many regions.

Preparation

The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source (usually marble).

Alternatively, calcium carbonate is prepared by calcining Calcination is a thermal treatment process applied to ores and other solid materials in order to bring about a thermal decomposition, phase transition, or removal of a volatile fraction. The calcination process normally takes place at temperatures below the melting point of the product materials. Calcination is to be distinguished from roasting, crude calcium oxide Calcium oxide , commonly known as quicklime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature. Water is added to give calcium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide, traditionally called slaked lime, hydrated lime, slack lime, or pickling lime, is a chemical compound with the chemical formula Ca2. It is a colourless crystal or white powder, and is obtained when calcium oxide (called lime or quicklime) is mixed, or "slaked" with water. It can also be precipitated by mixing an, and carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas comprising 0.039% of the atmosphere is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):^[2]

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂

Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O

Occurrence

Calcium carbonate is found naturally as the following minerals A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance that is formed through geological processes and that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition in the form of polymorphs Polymorphism in materials science is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure. Polymorphism can potentially be found in any crystalline material including polymers, minerals, and metals, and is related to allotropy, which refers to elemental solids. The complete morphology of a material is described by:

• Aragonite Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the two common, naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, Ca
• Calcite Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (Ca
• Vaterite Vaterite belongs to the hexagonal crystal system, whereas calcite is trigonal and aragonite is orthorhombic or (μ-CaCO₃)

The trigonal In crystallography, the trigonal crystal system is one of the seven crystal systems, and the rhombohedral lattice system is one of the seven lattice systems. They are often confused with each other: crystals in the rhombohedral lattice system are always in the trigonal crystal system, but some crystals such as quartz are in the trigonal crystal crystal structure of calcite is most common.

The calcium carbonate minerals occur in the following rocks In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids:

• Chalk Chalk is a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is calcium carbonate or CaCO3. It forms under relatively deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite plates (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. It is common to find chert or flint
• Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite . Like most other sedimentary rocks, limestones are composed of grains; however, most grains in limestone grains are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and
• Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. It is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material
• Travertine Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan and cream-colored varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter it can

Geology

Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings. It is found as a polymorph. A polymorph is a mineral A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance that is formed through geological processes and that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition with the same chemical formula but different chemical structure. Aragonite Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the two common, naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, Ca , calcite Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (Ca , limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite . Like most other sedimentary rocks, limestones are composed of grains; however, most grains in limestone grains are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and, chalk Chalk is a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is calcium carbonate or CaCO3. It forms under relatively deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite plates (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. It is common to find chert or flint, marble Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. It is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material, travertine Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan and cream-colored varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter it can, tufa Tufa is a variety of limestone, formed by the precipitation of carbonate minerals from ambient temperature water bodies. Geothermally heated hot-springs sometimes produce similar carbonate deposits known as travertine. Tufa is sometimes referred to as (meteogene) travertine; care must be taken when searching through literature to prevent confusion, and others all have CaCO₃ as their formula but each has a slightly different chemical structure. Calcite, as calcium carbonate is commonly referred to in geology is commonly talked about in marine settings. Calcite is typically found around the warm tropic environments. This is due to its chemistry and properties. Calcite is able to precipitate in warmer shallow environments than it does under colder environments because warmer environments do not favour the dissolution of CO₂. This is analogous to CO₂ being dissolved in soda. When you take the cap off of a soda bottle, the CO₂ rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. CO2 is a trace gas comprising 0.039% of the atmosphere is released. This same principle can be applied to calcite in the ocean. Cold water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate.

In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate.

Carbonate compensation depth

The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is the point in the ocean where the rate of precipitation of calcium carbonate is balanced by the rate of dissolution due to the conditions present. Deep in the ocean, the temperature drops and pressure increases. Calcium carbonate is unusual in that its solubility increases with decreasing temperature. Increasing pressure also increases the solubility of calcium carbonate. The CCD can range from 4-6 km below sea level.

Uses

Industrial applications

The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder or as the starting material for the preparation of builder's lime by burning in a kiln.

Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron Iron is the most common element in the earth as a whole, and the fourth most common in the Earth's crust. It is produced as a result of stellar fusion in high-mass stars, and it is the heaviest stable element produced by stellar fusion because the fusion of iron is the last nuclear fusion reaction that is exothermic. Iron is the most widely used from iron ore Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. The iron itself is usually found in the form of magnetite , hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)) or siderite (FeCO3) in a blast furnace A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron. Calcium carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron.^[3]

Calcium carbonate is also used in the oil industry The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting , and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and in drilling fluids as a formation bridging and filtercake sealing agent and may also be used as a weighting material to increase the density of drilling fluids to control downhole pressures.

Calcium carbonate is also one of the main sources used in growing Seacrete, or Biorock.

Precipitated calcium carbonate, pre-dispersed in slurry form, is also now widely used as filler material for latex gloves with the aim of achieving maximum saving in material and production costs.^[4]

Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints,^[5] in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble.

Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics.^[5] Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures.^[6] It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding compounds)^[6] and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of compression molded "clay" Poker chips.

Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in babies' diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.

Calcium carbonate is also used in a wide range of trade and do it yourself adhesives, sealants, and decorating fillers.^[5] Ceramic tile adhesives typically contain 70 to 80% limestone. Decorating crack fillers contain similar levels of marble or dolomite. It is also mixed with putty in setting stained glass windows, and as a resist to prevent glass from sticking to kiln shelves when firing glazes and paints at high temperature.

Calcium carbonate is known as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications,^[5] where it is used as a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze.

Ground Calcium Carbonate (GCC) or Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) is used as a filler in paper. GCC and PCC are cheaper than wood fiber, so adding it to paper is cost efficient for the paper industry. Printing and writing paper can be made of 10 - 20% calcium cabonate.

In North America, calcium carbonate has begun to replace kaolin in the production of glossy paper. Europe has been practicing this as alkaline papermaking or acid-free papermaking for some decades. Carbonates are available in forms: ground calcium carbonate (GCC) or precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC). The latter has a very fine and controlled particle size, on the order of 2 micrometres in diameter, useful in coatings for paper.

It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity "buffer" to offset the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent.

It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO₄·2H₂O.

Ground calcium carbonate is further used as an abrasive (both as scouring powder and as an ingredient of household scouring creams), in particular in its calcite form, which has the relatively low hardness level of 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, and will therefore not scratch glass and most other ceramics, enamel, bronze, iron, and steel, and have a moderate effect on softer metals like aluminium and copper.

Health and dietary applications

Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or antacid.^[7] It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals.^[8]

Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples or food^[9].

Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the "milk alkali syndrome," which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regimen" of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease. During the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1.2 to 1.5 g daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. Excessive calcium intake can lead to hypercalcemia, complications of which include vomiting, abdominal pain and altered mental status.^[10]

As a food additive it is designated E170.^[11] It is used in some soy milk products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cow's milk.^[12] Calcium carbonate is also used as a firming agent in many canned or bottled vegetable products.

Environmental applications

In 1989, a researcher, Ken Simmons, introduced CaCO₃ into the Whetstone Brook in Massachusetts.^[13] His hope was that the calcium carbonate would counter the acid in the stream from acid rain and save the trout that had ceased to spawn. Although his experiment was a success, it did increase the amounts of aluminium ions in the area of the brook that was not treated with the limestone. This shows that CaCO₃ can be added to neutralize the effects of acid rain in river ecosystems. Currently calcium carbonate is used to neutralize acidic conditions in both soil and water.^[14][15]. Since the 1970s, such liming has been practiced on a large scale in Sweden to mitigate acidification and several thousand lakes and streams are limed repeatedly.^[16]

Calcination equilibrium

Calcination of limestone using charcoal fires to produce quicklime has been practiced since antiquity by cultures all over the world. The temperature at which limestone yields calcium oxide is usually given as 825 °C, but stating an absolute threshold is misleading. Calcium carbonate exists in equilibrium with calcium oxide and carbon dioxide at any temperature. At each temperature there is a partial pressure of carbon dioxide that is in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. At room temperature the equilibrium overwhelmingly favors calcium carbonate, because the equilibrium CO₂ pressure is only a tiny fraction of the partial CO₂ pressure in air, which is about 0.035 kPa.

At temperatures above 550 °C the equilibrium CO₂ pressure begins to exceed the CO₂ pressure in air. So above 550 °C, calcium carbonate begins to outgas CO₂ into air. But in a charcoal fired kiln, the concentration of CO₂ will be much higher than it is in air. Indeed if all the oxygen in the kiln is consumed in the fire, then the partial pressure of CO₂ in the kiln can be as high as 20 kPa.

The table shows that this equilibrium pressure is not achieved until the temperature is nearly 800 °C. For the outgassing of CO₂ from calcium carbonate to happen at an economically useful rate, the equilibrium pressure must significantly exceed the ambient pressure of CO₂. And for it to happen rapidly, the equilibrium pressure must exceed total atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa, which happens at 898 °C.

Solubility

With varying CO₂ pressure

Calcium carbonate is poorly soluble in pure water (47 mg/L at normal atmospheric CO₂ partial pressure as shown below).

The equilibrium of its solution is given by the equation (with dissolved calcium carbonate on the right):

CaCO3 Ca2+ + CO32–

Ksp = 3.7×10−9 to 8.7×10−9 at 25 °C

where the solubility product for [Ca²⁺][CO₃^2–] is given as anywhere from K_sp = 3.7×10⁻⁹ to K_sp = 8.7×10⁻⁹ at 25 °C, depending upon the data source.^[17][18] What the equation means is that the product of molar concentration of calcium ions (moles of dissolved Ca²⁺ per liter of solution) with the molar concentration of dissolved CO₃^2– cannot exceed the value of K_sp. This seemingly simple solubility equation, however, must be taken along with the more complicated equilibrium of carbon dioxide with water (see carbonic acid). Some of the CO₃^2– combines with H⁺ in the solution according to:

HCO3– H+ + CO32–

Ka2 = 5.61×10−11 at 25 °C

HCO₃^– is known as the bicarbonate ion. Calcium bicarbonate is many times more soluble in water than calcium carbonate—indeed it exists only in solution.

Some of the HCO₃^– combines with H⁺ in solution according to:

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3–

Ka1 = 2.5×10−4 at 25 °C

Some of the H₂CO₃ breaks up into water and dissolved carbon dioxide according to:

H2O + CO2(dissolved) H2CO3

Kh = 1.70×10−3 at 25 °C

And dissolved carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide according to:

where kH = 29.76 atm/(mol/L) at 25 °C (Henry constant), being the CO2 partial pressure.

For ambient air, is around 3.5×10⁻⁴ atmospheres (or equivalently 35 Pa). The last equation above fixes the concentration of dissolved CO₂ as a function of , independent of the concentration of dissolved CaCO₃. At atmospheric partial pressure of CO₂, dissolved CO₂ concentration is 1.2×10^–5 moles/liter. The equation before that fixes the concentration of H₂CO₃ as a function of [CO₂]. For [CO₂]=1.2×10^–5, it results in [H₂CO₃]=2.0×10⁻⁸ moles per liter. When [H₂CO₃] is known, the remaining three equations together with

H2O H+ + OH–

K = 10−14 at 25 °C

(which is true for all aqueous solutions), and the fact that the solution must be electrically neutral,

2[Ca²⁺] + [H⁺] = [HCO₃^–] + 2[CO₃^2–] + [OH^–]

make it possible to solve simultaneously for the remaining five unknown concentrations (note that the above form of the neutrality equation is valid only if calcium carbonate has been put in contact with pure water or with a neutral pH solution; in the case where the origin water solvent pH is not neutral, the equation is modified).

The table on the right shows the result for [Ca²⁺] and [H⁺] (in the form of pH) as a function of ambient partial pressure of CO₂ (K_sp = 4.47×10⁻⁹ has been taken for the calculation).

• At atmospheric levels of ambient CO₂ the table indicates the solution will be slightly alkaline with a maximum CaCO₃ solubility of 47 mg/L.

• As ambient CO₂ partial pressure is reduced below atmospheric levels, the solution becomes more and more alkaline. At extremely low , dissolved CO₂, bicarbonate ion, and carbonate ion largely evaporate from the solution, leaving a highly alkaline solution of calcium hydroxide, which is more soluble than CaCO₃. Note that for = 10⁻¹² atm, the [Ca²⁺][OH^-]² product is still below the solubility product of Ca(OH)₂ (8×10⁻⁶). For still lower CO₂ pressure, Ca(OH)₂ precipitation will occur before CaCO₃ precipitation.

• As ambient CO₂ partial pressure increases to levels above atmospheric, pH drops, and much of the carbonate ion is converted to bicarbonate ion, which results in higher solubility of Ca²⁺.

The effect of the latter is especially evident in day to day life of people who have hard water. Water in aquifers underground can be exposed to levels of CO₂ much higher than atmospheric. As such water percolates through calcium carbonate rock, the CaCO₃ dissolves according to the second trend. When that same water then emerges from the tap, in time it comes into equilibrium with CO₂ levels in the air by outgassing its excess CO₂. The calcium carbonate becomes less soluble as a result and the excess precipitates as lime scale. This same process is responsible for the formation of stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves.

Two hydrated phases of calcium carbonate, monohydrocalcite, CaCO₃·H₂O and ikaite, CaCO₃·6H₂O, may precipitate from water at ambient conditions and persist as metastable phases.

With varying pH

We now consider the problem of the maximum solubility of calcium carbonate in normal atmospheric conditions ( = 3.5 × 10⁻⁴ atm) when the pH of the solution is adjusted. This is for example the case in a swimming pool where the pH is maintained between 7 and 8 (by addition of sodium bisulfate NaHSO₄ to decrease the pH or of sodium bicarbonate NaHCO₃ to increase it). From the above equations for the solubility product, the hydration reaction and the two acid reactions, the following expression for the maximum [Ca²⁺] can be easily deduced:

showing a quadratic dependence in [H⁺]. The numerical application with the above values of the constants gives^{[citation needed]}

Comments:

• decreasing the pH from 8 to 7 increases the maximum Ca²⁺ concentration by a factor 100. Water with a pH maintained to 7 can dissolve up to 15.9 g/L of CaCO₃. This explains the high Ca²⁺ concentration in some mineral waters with pH close to 7.
• note that the Ca²⁺ concentration of the previous table is recovered for pH = 8.27
• keeping the pH to 7.4 in a swimming pool (which gives optimum HClO/ClO⁻ ratio in the case of "chlorine" maintenance) results in a maximum Ca²⁺ concentration of 1010 mg/L. This means that successive cycles of water evaporation and partial renewing may result in a very hard water before CaCO₃ precipitates (water with a Ca²⁺ concentration above 120 mg/L is considered very hard). Addition of a calcium sequestring agent or complete renewing of the water will solve the problem.

Solubility in a strong or weak acid solution

Solutions of strong (HCl), moderately strong (sulfamic) or weak (acetic, citric, sorbic, lactic, phosphoric) acids are commercially available. They are commonly used as descaling agents to remove limescale deposits. The maximum amount of CaCO₃ that can be "dissolved" by one liter of an acid solution can be calculated using the above equilibrium equations.

• In the case of a strong monoacid with decreasing acid concentration [A] = [A^-], we obtain (with CaCO₃ molar mass = 100 g):

where the initial state is the acid solution with no Ca²⁺ (not taking into account possible CO₂ dissolution) and the final state is the solution with saturated Ca²⁺. For strong acid concentrations, all species have a negligible concentration in the final state with respect to Ca²⁺ and A^- so that the neutrality equation reduces approximately to 2[Ca²⁺] = [A^-] yielding . When the concentration decreases, [HCO₃^-] becomes non negligible so that the preceding expression is no longer valid. For vanishing acid concentrations, we recover the final pH and the solubility of CaCO₃ in pure water.

• In the case of a weak monoacid (here we take acetic acid with pK_A = 4.76) with decreasing total acid concentration [A] = [A^-]+[AH], we obtain:

We see that for the same total acid concentration, the initial pH of the weak acid is less acid than the one of the strong acid; however, the maximum amount of CaCO₃ which can be dissolved is approximately the same. This is because in the final state, the pH is larger that the pK_A, so that the weak acid is almost completely dissociated, yielding in the end as many H⁺ ions as the strong acid to "dissolve" the calcium carbonate.

• The calculation in the case of phosphoric acid (which is the most widely used for domestic applications) is more complicated since the concentrations of the four dissociation states corresponding to this acid must be calculated together with [HCO₃^-], [CO₃^2-], [Ca²⁺], [H⁺] and [OH^-]. The system may be reduced to a seventh degree equation for [H⁺] the numerical solution of which gives

where [A] = [H₃PO₄] + [H₂PO₄^-] + [HPO₄^2-] + [PO₄^3-] is the total acid concentration. We see that phosphoric acid is more efficient than a monoacid since at the final almost neutral pH, the second dissociated state concentration [HPO₄^2-] is not negligible (see phosphoric acid).

See also

• Cuttlebone
• Cuttlefish
• Gesso
• Limescale
• Marble
• Ocean acidification

References

1. ^ Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070494398. http://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
2. ^ "Solvay Precipitated Calcium Carbonate: Production". Solvay S. A.. 2007-03-09. http://www.solvaypcc.com/safety_environment/0,0,1000044-_EN,00.html. Retrieved 2007-12-30.
3. ^ "Blast Furnace". Science Aid. http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/industrial/blastfurnace.html. Retrieved 2007-12-30.
4. ^ "Precipitated Calcium Carbonate uses". http://www.aristocratholding.com/calris-5.html.
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External links

• International Chemical Safety Card 1193
• CID 516889 from PubChem
• ATC codes: A02 AC01 and A12 AA04
• The British Calcium Carbonate Association – What is calcium carbonate

Categories: Calcium compounds | Carbonates | Limestone | Phosphate binders | Excipients | Antacids

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