decomp.

Cellulose is an organic compound An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of compounds such as carbonates, simple oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon, are considered inorganic. The distinction between "organic" and " with the formula A chemical formula or molecular formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound (C Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of₆H Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its₁₀O Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, OK-si-jin, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly₅)_n, a polysaccharide Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate structures, formed of repeating units joined together by glycosidic bonds. These structures are often linear, but may contain various degrees of branching. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose Glucose , a simple sugar (monosaccharide), is an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as a source of energy and a metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration. Starch and cellulose are polymers derived from the dehydration of glucose. The name "glucose" comes units.^[2][3]

Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall A cell wall is a tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion of green plants Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004,, many forms of algae Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are photosynthetic, like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants and the oomycetes Oömycota or oömycetes form a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms. They are filamentous microscopic, absorptive organisms that reproduce both sexually and asexually. Oomycetes occupy both saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles – and include some of the most notorious pathogens of plants, causing devastating. Some species of bacteria The bacteria ( [bækˈtɪəriə] ; singular: bacterium)[α] are a large group of single-celled, prokaryote microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria are ubiquitous in every habitat on Earth, growing in soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, secrete it to form biofilms A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other and/or to a surface. These adherent cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance . Biofilm EPS, which is also referred to as slime (although not everything described as slime is a biofilm), is a polymeric. Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Pakistan, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely is 90 percent and that of wood Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many plants. It has been used for centuries for both fuel and as a construction material for several types of living areas such as houses. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. In the strict sense wood is produced as is 40-50 percent).^[4][5]

For industrial use, cellulose is mainly obtained from wood pulp Pulp is a dry fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating fibres from wood, fibre crops or waste paper and cotton Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Pakistan, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely. It is mainly used to produce paperboard Paperboard is a 'vegetable-fibre web' formed from a water suspension. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker (usually over 0.25 mm/0.010 in or 10 points) than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight (grammage) above 224 g/m², but there are and paper Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets; to a smaller extent it is converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, and bacteria makes it useful for food packaging. Cellophane is in many countries a registered trade mark of Innovia Films Ltd, Cumbria, UK and rayon Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry. It usually has a high luster quality giving it a bright. Converting cellulose from energy crops Commercial energy crops are typically densely planted, high yielding crop species where the energy crops will be burnt to generate power. Woody crops such as Willow or Poplar are widely utilised,as well as tropical grasses such as Miscanthus and Pennisetum purpureum . If carbohydrate content is desired for the production of biogas, whole-crops into biofuels Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil such as cellulosic ethanol It is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn stover, switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips and the byproducts of lawn and tree maintenance are some of the more popular cellulosic materials for is under investigation as an alternative fuel source.

Some animals, particularly ruminants Physiologically, a ruminant is a mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first stomach, then regurgitating the semi-digested mass, now known as cud, and chewing it again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion is called " and termites The termites are a group of eusocial insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera . Along with ants and some bees and wasps which are all placed in the separate order Hymenoptera, termites divide labour among gender lines, produce overlapping generations and take care of young collectively. Termites mostly feed on dead plant, can digest In mammals, food enters the mouth, being chewed by teeth, with chemical processing beginning with chemicals in the saliva from the salivary glands. Then it travels down the esophagus into the stomach, where hydrochloric acid kills most contaminating microorganisms and begins mechanical break down of some food , and chemical alteration of some. The cellulose with the help of symbiotic The term symbiosis commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different biological species. The term was first used in 1879 by the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary, who defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms." The definition of symbiosis is in flux, and the term has been applied to a wide micro-organisms that live in their guts. Humans Humans are a species of animal known taxonomically as Homo sapiens , and are the only extant member of the Homo genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae, the great ape family. However, in some cases "human" is used to refer to any member of the genus Homo can digest cellulose to some extent,^[6][7] however it is often referred to as 'dietary fiber It acts by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber absorbs water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance and is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Insoluble fiber has bulking action and is not fermented, although a major dietary' or 'roughage' (e.g. outer shell of Maize Maize is a grass domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The Aztecs and Mayans cultivated it in numerous varieties throughout central and southern Mexico, to cook or grind in a process called nixtamalization. Later the crop spread through much of the Americas. Between 1250 A.D. and 1700 A.D. nearly the whole) and acts as a hydrophilic Hydrophiles, from the Greek "water" and φιλια (philia) "bonding," refers to a physical property of a molecule that can transiently bond with water (H2O) through hydrogen bonding. This is thermodynamically favorable, and makes these molecules soluble not only in water, but also in other polar solvents. There are hydrophilic bulking agent for feces Feces, faeces, or fæces is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation.

History

Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen Anselme Payen was a French chemist known for discovering the enzyme diastase, and the carbohydrate cellulose, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula.^[2][8] Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer A thermoplastic, also known as thermosoftening plastic, is a polymer that turns to a liquid when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most thermoplastics are high-molecular-weight polymers whose chains associate through weak Van der Waals forces ; stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding (nylon); or, celluloid Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, plus dyes and other agents. Generally regarded to be the first thermoplastic, it was first created as Parkesine in 1862 and as Xylonite in 1869 before being registered as Celluloid in 1870. Celluloid is easily molded and shaped, and it was first widely used as, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Hermann Staudinger Hermann Staudinger was a German chemist who demonstrated the existence of macromolecules which he characterized as polymers. For this work he received the 1953 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He is also known for his discovery of ketenes and of the Staudinger reaction determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically derived enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda.^[9]

Commercial products

Cellulose is the major constituent of paper Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets, paperboard Paperboard is a 'vegetable-fibre web' formed from a water suspension. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker (usually over 0.25 mm/0.010 in or 10 points) than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight (grammage) above 224 g/m², but there are, and card stock Card stock, also called cover stock or pasteboard, is a paper stock that is thicker and more durable than normal writing or printing paper, but thinner and more flexible than other forms of paperboard. Card stock is often used for postcards, playing cards, catalog covers, scrapbooking, and other uses which require higher durability than regular and of textiles A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres often referred to as thread or yarn. Yarn is produced by spinning raw wool fibres, linen, cotton, or other material on a spinning wheel to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together made from cotton Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant. The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Pakistan, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely, linen Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Linen is labor-intensive to manufacture, but when it is made into garments, it is valued for its exceptional coolness and freshness in hot weather, and other plant fibers.

Cellulose can be converted into cellophane Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, and bacteria makes it useful for food packaging. Cellophane is in many countries a registered trade mark of Innovia Films Ltd, Cumbria, UK, a thin transparent film, and into rayon Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry. It usually has a high luster quality giving it a bright, an important fiber that has been used for textiles since the beginning of the 20th century. Both cellophane and rayon are known as "regenerated cellulose fibers"; they are identical to cellulose in chemical structure and are usually made from dissolving pulp via viscose. A more recent and environmentally friendly method to produce rayon is the Lyocell process. Cellulose is the raw material in the manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which was historically used in smokeless gunpowder and as the base material for celluloid used for photographic and movie films until the mid 1930s.

Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in wallpaper paste. Microcrystalline cellulose (E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as inactive fillers in tablets^[10] and as thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose powder is for example used in Kraft Parmesean Cheese to prevent caking inside the tube.

Cellulose is used in the laboratory as the stationary phase for thin layer chromatography. Cellulose fibers are also used in liquid filtration, sometimes in combination with diatomaceous earth or other filtration media, to create a filter bed of inert material. Cellulose is further used to make hydrophilic and highly absorbent sponges.

Cellulose insulation made from recycled paper is becoming popular as an environmentally preferable material for building insulation. It can be treated with boric acid as a fire retardant.

Cellulose source and energy crops

The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. Non-food energy crops are more efficient than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources.^[11] Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp, switchgrass, Miscanthus, Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species.

Some bacteria can convert cellulose into ethanol which can then be used as a fuel; see cellulosic ethanol.

Structure and properties

Cellulose has no taste, is odourless, is hydrophilic, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated acids at high temperature.

Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch, glycogen, and other carbohydrates. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen molecules on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where the microfibrils are meshed into a carbohydrate matrix, conferring rigidity to plant cells.

Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60-70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water.^[12]

Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures I_α and I_β. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I_α while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of I_β. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is not reversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.^[13]

Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial celluloses have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units.^[9] Molecules with very small chain length resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents.

Plant-derived cellulose is usually contaminated with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while microbial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content, and consists of long chains.

Cellulose is soluble in cupriethylenediamine (CED), cadmiumethylenediamine (Cadoxen), N-methylmorpholine N-oxide and lithium chloride / dimethylformamide^[14]. This is used in the production of regenerated celluloses (as viscose and cellophane) from dissolving pulp.

Assaying cellulose

Given a cellulose-containing material, the carbohydrate portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 °C is α cellulose, which is true cellulose. Acidification of the extract precipitates β cellulose. The portion that dissolves in base but does not precipitate with acid is γ cellulose.

Cellulose can be assayed using a method described by Updegraff in 1969, where the fiber is dissolved in acetic and nitric acid to remove lignin, hemicellulose, and xylosans. The resulting cellulose is allowed to react with anthrone in sulfuric acid. The resulting coloured compound is assayed spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of approximately 635 nm.

In addition, cellulose is represented by the difference between acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL).

Biosynthesis

In vascular plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTCs). The RTCs are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains.^[15] Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell wall.

RTCs contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA genes, in an unknown stoichiometry.^[16] Separate sets of CesA genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis.

Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate. CesA glucosyltransferase initiates cellulose polymerization using a steroid primer, sitosterol-beta-glucoside, and UDP-glucose.^[17] Cellulose synthase utilizes UDP-D-glucose precursors to elongate the growing cellulose chain. A cellulase may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain.

Breakdown (cellulolysis)

Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the breakdown of other polysaccharides.^[18]

Most mammals have only very limited ability to digest dietary fibres such as cellulose. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (like Cellulomonas) in the flora of the rumen, and these bacteria produce enzymes called cellulases that help the microorganism to break down cellulose; the breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation. The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its digestive system (stomach and small intestine). Similarly, lower termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa which produce such enzymes; higher termites contain bacteria for the job. Some termites may also produce cellulase of their own.^[19] Fungi, which in nature are responsible for recycling of nutrients, are also able to break down cellulose.

The enzymes utilized to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and cellulose binding modules.^[20]

Hemicellulose

Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide related to cellulose that comprises ca. 20% of the biomass of most plants. In contrast to cellulose, hemicellulose is derived from several sugars in addition to glucose, especially xylose but also including mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicellulose consists of shorter chains - around 200 sugar units. Furthermore, hemicellulose is branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched.

Derivatives

The hydroxyl groups (-OH) of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various reagents to afford derivatives with useful properties like mainly cellulose esters and cellulose ethers (-OR). In principle, though not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.

Ester derivatives include:

The cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a variety of uses. The nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material.

Ether derivatives include:

The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose can be cross-linked to give the croscarmellose sodium for use as a disintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations.

See also

• Cell wall
• Cellulose insulation
• Cellulose fiber
• Cellulosic ethanol
• Hemicellulose
• Microbial cellulose

References

1. ^ Nishiyama, Yoshiharu; Langan, Paul; Chanzy, Henri (2002). "Crystal Structure and Hydrogen-Bonding System in Cellulose Iβ from Synchrotron X-ray and Neutron Fiber Diffraction". J. Am. Chem. Soc 124 (31): 9074–82. doi:10.1021/ja0257319. PMID 12149011. .
2. ^ ^{a b} Crawford, R. L. (1981). Lignin biodegradation and transformation. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-05743-6.
3. ^ Updegraff DM (1969). "Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials". Analytical Biochemistry 32 (3): 420–424. doi:10.1016/S0003-2697(69)80009-6. PMID 5361396.
4. ^ Cellulose. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 11, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5. ^ http://ipst.gatech.edu/faculty_new/faculty_bios/ragauskas/technical_reviews/Chemical%20Overview%20of%20Wood.pdf
6. ^ Slavin, J.L., Brauer, P.M., and Marlett, J.A. (1980) "Neutral detergent fiber, hemicellulose and cellulose digestibility in human subjects." J Nutr 111(2):287-297 PMID 6257867
7. ^ Joshi S, Agte V. (1995) Digestibility of dietary fiber components in vegetarian men. PMID 8719737
8. ^ Young, Raymond (1986). Cellulose structure modification and hydrolysis. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0471827614.
9. ^ ^{a b} Klemm, Dieter; Brigitte Heublein, Hans-Peter Fink, Andreas Bohn (2005). "Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material". ChemInform 36 (36). doi:10.1002/chin.200536238.
10. ^ Weiner, Myra L.; Lois A. Kotkoskie (1999). Excipient Toxicity and Safety. New York ; Dekker, c2000.. pp. 210. ISBN 0824782100, 9780824782108.
11. ^ Holt-Gimenez, Eric 2007. Biofuels: Myths of the Agrofuels Transition. Backgrounder. Institute for Food and Development Policy, Oakland, CA. 13:2
12. ^ Cooking cellulose in hot and compressed water Shigeru Deguchi, Kaoru Tsujii and Koki Horikoshi Chem. Commun., 2006, 3293 - 3295, doi:10.1039/b605812d
13. ^ Structure and morphology of cellulose by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS, 2001. Chapter IV.
14. ^ Stenius, Per (2000) "1" Forest Products Chemistry Papermaking Science and Technology 3 Finland: Fapet OY p. 35 ISBN 952-5216-03-9
15. ^ Kimura, Laosinchai, Itoh, Cui, Linder, Brown, Plant Cell, 1999, 11, 2075-2085
16. ^ Taylor, Howells, Huttly, Vickers, Turner, PNAS, 2003, 100, 1450-1455
17. ^ Peng, Kawagoe, Hogan, Delmer, "Sitosterol-beta-glucoside as primer for cellulose synthesis in plants", Science, 2002, 295, 147-150. PMID 11778054
18. ^ David G. Barkalow, Roy L. Whistler, "Cellulose", in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, DOI 10.1036/1097-8542.118200. Retrieved 11 January 2008.
19. ^ Tokuda, G; Watanabe, H (22 June 2007). "Hidden cellulases in termites: revision of an old hypothesis". Biology Letters 3 (3): 336–339. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0073. PMID 17374589. PMC 2464699. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/3/336.long
20. ^ Brás, Natércia; N. M. F. S. A. Cerqueira, P. A. Fernandes, M. J. Ramos (2008). "Carbohydrate Binding Modules from family 11: Understanding the binding mode of polysaccharides". International Journal of Quantum Chemistry 108 (11): 2030-2040. doi:10.1002/qua.21755.

External links

• Structure and morphology of cellulose by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS
• Cellulose, by Martin Chaplin, London South Bank University
• Clear description of a cellulose assay method at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the USDA.
• Cellulose films could provide flapping wings and cheap artificial muscles for robots - TechnologyReview.com
• Using cellulase enzymes in the bioethanol process
• A list of cellulolytic bacteria

Categories: Polysaccharides | Cellulose | Excipients | Papermaking

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